THE GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF ISLAMIC ASTRONOMY (‘ILM AL-FALAK

THE GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF ISLAMIC ASTRONOMY (‘ILM AL-FALAK)

1.  The Definition of Islamic Astronomy (‘Ilm al-Falak)

Etymologically, the definition of Falak is the path of celestial objects, which is called orbit²⁶ in English. Terminologically, it is the science studying the path of celestial objects, such as Sun, Moon, stars, and others in order to determine the celestial objects’ position.

In  Holly  Quran,  word  Falak  used  twice,  namely  in  both

Chapter Yāsīn verse 40 and Chapter al-Anbiyā’ verse 33.

Means: It is not for Sun to overtake Moon, nor does the night outstrip the day. They all float, each in an orbit. (Yasin [36]: 40)

Means: And He it is Who has created the night and the day, and Sun and Moon, each in an orbit floating. (Al-Anbiya [21]: 33)

In  the  classical  literatures,  „Ilm  al-Falak  has  some  similar

words, such as Ilm al-Haiah, Ilm al-Ḥisāb, Ilm al-Rashd, Ilm al-

Mīqāt, and Astronomy. Learning about geometric position of celestial objects to determine the time schedule on Earth is the part of „Ilm al-Haiah. Al-Mas’ūdi explained that Ilm al-Haiah had a synonym with a Greek term, namely Astronomy. Term „Ilm al-Haiah (Astronomy) is often called Ilm al-Falak. However, in the Islamic history, it was more popular than term Ilm al-Falak. Nevertheless, in this modern era, term Ilm al-Falak is more popular than it. It almost lost.

„Ilm al-Falak (Astronomy/’Ilmu al-Haiah) is more complex than just studying the geometric position of celestial objects for practical purpose such as determining the times.³⁴ The last one is just a part of „Ilm al-Falak. Muslim scholars in the middle ages called it as Ilm al-Mawāqīt (the science explaining about times). Al-Qalqasyandī (w.821/1418) definined that „Ilm al-Mawāqīt examining the prayer times, determining the sacred direction (Qibla), the other directions and positions of a place where is on Earth in the terms of longitude and latitude by knowledge of the sky, the height, the circulation, the light, and the shadow of celestial objects was a branch of „Ilm al-Haiah. He also said that it was the most glorious branch of „Ilm al-Falak („Ilm al-Haiah) according to the Shariah view.

Muslim scholars in the middle ages defined that„Ilm al-Falak was a branch of knowledge examining the condition of the celestial objects in the form term, content term, quality term, and motion term. As Ibn Khaldun’s definition, it is the study of both the movements and positions of the stars and planets.³⁸

In the next era, Muhammad Aḥmad Sulaimān defined that„Ilm al-Falak was a science examining everything related to the universe of celestial objects where was outside of Earth’s atmosphere, such as Sun, Moon, stars, the galaxy systems, planets, satellits, comets, and meteors in the origin, movement, physical, and chemical term by using the rules of Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, and Biology.

Therefore, to distinguish Ilm al-Falak in the astronomical sense wit Ilm al-Falak, which specially examines the motion of both Sun and Moon for determining the prayer times and the sacred direction is that the last one is called Ilm al-Falak Shar’ ī.

Recently, Ilm al-Falak is known as Ilm al-Ḥisāb al-Ruَyah because it uses two approaches, namely observational approach (Ruَyah Approach) and calculating approach (Ḥisāb Approach). Both of them have a mutual symbiosis.

2.  The Scope of Islamic Astronomy (‘Ilm al-Falak)

In outline, „Ilm al-Falak is divided into two kinds, namely Ilm al-Falak al-Ilmī (Theoretical Astronomy) and Ilm al-Falak al-Amalī (Practical Astronomy or Observational Astronomy).

a.  ‘Ilm al-Falak al-‘Ilmy (Theoretical Astronomy)

Ilm al-Falak al-Ilmī (Theoretical Astronomy) is a science discussing about theory and concept of celestial objects in the origin and development aspect (Cosmogony), the form and the set aspects (Cosmology). In addition, it discusses about the circulation description of celestial objects (Cosmography); the size and the distance of celestial objects (Astrometry); the motion and the gravity of celestial objects (Astromechanics); thecharacteristic and element of celestial objects based on Physiccs (Astrophysics).

b.     ‘Ilm al-Falak al-‘Amalī (Practical Astronomy or Observational Astronomy)

Ilm al-Falak al-Amalī (Practical Astronomy or Observational Astronomy) is a science to know the positions of celestial objects by calculation.⁵⁰ This science is developed based on observations. Therefore, the observation data, which can correct the Ephimeris’ data, is the primary data.⁵¹ People know this as Ilm al-Falak or „Ilm al-Ḥisāb.⁵²

A consequence of the relation between Ilm al-Falak with Islamic worship is that it only examines the four subjects, namely: determination of the sacred direction (Qibla), prayer times, the biginning of months of Hijri Calender, and eclipses.

1)      Determination of the Sacred Direction (Qibla)

The purpose of „Ilm al-Falak discussing about the determination of the sacred direction (Qibla) is to calculate how many degrees the angle, which is flanked beween meridian passingthrough a place whose sacred direction is counted with the great circle passing through that place and Kabah (Ka’bah). In addition, it is to calculate when Sun goes path across Kabah.

 2)  Determination of the Prayer Times

The purpose of „Ilm al-Falak discussing about the determination of the prayer times is to calculate the grace period between the times when Sun is in the top culmination point with the time when Sun is in the position indicating the beginning of the prayer times.

3)     Determination of the Biginning of the Months of Hijri Calender

The purpose of „Ilm al-Falak discussing about the determination of the beginning of the months of Hijri Calender is to calculate the time when Sun and Moon are in the same astronomical longitude (Ijtimā’ or Conjunction) and to calculate where the new moon (Hilāl) will be in when Sun sets on the day of that conjunction.

4)     Determination of Eclipses

The purpose of Ilm al-Falak discussing about the determination of eclipses is to calculate when Moon covers and outs of Sun in the solar eclipse and when Moon begins to enter and gets out from umbra shadow of Earth in the lunar eclipse.

‘Ilm al-Falak

a.  ‘Ilm al-Falak al-‘Ilmī		b.  ‘Ilm al-Falak al-‘Amalī (Practical
(Theoretical Astronomy)		Astronomy   or		Observational
1)	Cosmogony	Astronomy)
2)	Cosmology	1)	Determination	of	the	Sacred
3)	Cosmography		Direction (Qibla)
4)	Astrometry	2)	Determination	of	the	Prayer
5)	Astromechanics		Times
6)	Astrophysics	3)	Determination of the Biginning
			of the Months of Hijri Calender
		4)	Determination of Eclipses

Table 2.1: The Scope of Islamic Astronomy (Ilm’ al-Falak)

B.     The Development of the Study of Islamic Astronomy (Ilm al-Falak)

1.  The Origin of Islamic Astronomy (Ilm al-Falak)

A science appears because of the people’s responses to the problems existing in society. The consequence is that a science has existed before it is found. Therefore, Ilm al-Falak has existed before it is found.

Some  classical  literatures,  in  such  like  al-Khalāṣah  al- Wafiyyah written by KH. Zubair „Umar al-Jailanī, stated that the first inventor of Ilm al-Falak was Prophet Idris PBUH. Therefore, it can be said that Ilm al-Falak had existed before he found it.

As the historical records, Astronomy of Babylonian was the basis of many astronomical traditions developed by Greek, Ancient India, Sasanid (Persia), Byzantium and Europe. The basis of western’s Astronomy was found in Mesopotamia in the clay board form. It is a relic of Sumerians in 3500 – 3000 BC. Ancient Chinese also used Astronomy as a timer in 4000 BC. Thantawi al-Jauhari who was an expert of Astronomy said that the new Astronomy was reintroduced in the 28^th century BC. It was used to determine the paganism time.

In 500 BC, Ancient India has known Astronomy. The proof is that Aryabhata discovered the mathematical system of Astronomy based on the rotation of Earth. In addition, Braghmagupta also discovered the Algebraic Notation, which could solve the astronomical calculation problem. Ancient Greeks were also interested in Astronomy. In the 6^th century BC, Thales who was an Ancient Greek Astronomer argued that Earth was flat. Because Phytagoras was not satisfied with this opinion, he denied by arguing that the shape of Earth was round like a ball. Aristoteles also reinforced this argument in two centuries later.

Arabs have the knowledge about Astronomy before the advent of Islam. They had an intimate knowledge of Sun, Moon, and the changing night sky throughout the year, as well as the meteorogical phenomena associated with the season. Then, in the Muhammad

PBUH’s era, Astronomy has not been developed yet. Arab’s knowledge about the Astronomy was still limited as a guide in the desert at night. They did not have the sophisticated knowledge aboutit.

Since Sun, Moon, stars, and winds are specifically mentioned in Holy Quran, there was considerable interest in the heavens, both in the early Islamic community of the Hejaz. During the millenium, which followed the introduction of a far more sophisticated mathematical Astronomy from Indian, Sasanian and Hellenistic sources to the vigorous cultural scene of Abbasid Iraq in the eighth and ninth centuries, Muslim scholars made substantial contributions to all aspect of Astronomy, spherical astronomy, timekeeping, instruments, and astrology.

In that time, Muslim scholars began to translate some texts from India, Persia, and Greece, such as Surya Siddhanta, which is an Indian script written by Aryabhata (476-550 AD). It was translated by Muḥammad al-Farāzi and Ya’qūb ibn Ṭarīq in 777 AD under the titleal-Sindhind Zaij.

Furthermore, the Astronomy grew so rapidly in the Islamic culture and finally it became stagnant. Donald Rutledge Hill who was a science historian divided the history of Islamic Astronomy into four periods as below:

a.    Period I (700-825 AD) is the assimilation period for the integration beginning of Greek Astronomy, Indian Astronomy, and Sassanid Astronomy (Persia).

b.      Period II (825-1025 AD) is the large-scale investigation, acceptance and modification system of Ptolemy.

c.       Period III (1025-1450 AD) is the advancement of the Islamic Astronomy system.

d.     Period IV (1450-1900 AD) is a stagnation period.

2.  The Treasury of Islamic Astronomy (Ilm al-Falak)

A massive effort to translate the Greek works into Arabic has become the beginning of the growing treasury of Islamic Astronomy(Ilm al-Falak). It engendered a great effort of the Muslims to research, to digest, and to make some corrections to these Greek works. Therefore, they could discover any new discoveries being the treasury of sciences, including Islamic Astronomy.

Those treasuries of Islamic Astronomy divided into four categories, namely instrumental category, observational category, theoretical category, and category for the religious purposes.

a.  Instrumental Category

The achievement of the more accurate astronomical data is from not only the expertise of the observers but also the quality of the observational instruments.

Astrolabe was an important calculation instrument in the beginning of Renaissance. It is a refinement form of the Greek astrolabes found in the second century BC. It can be used to measure the celestial objects position on the celestial sphere by the simplest form. It consists of a scout hole and two plates with the degrees scale. Both of them are placed in such a way to find out how many degrees the altitude and azimuth of a celestial object.

Astrolabe has many types. They are Persian Astrolabe (12^th

Century) marked Ḥamīd ibn Ḥamīd Maḥmūd al-Isfaḥāni, Persian

Astrolabe  (18^th Century)  made  by  Ḥasan  Muḥammad  Khalīl,

Spanish Astrolabe (14^th Century) signed by Aḥmad ibn Ḥusain ibn

Baso, Universal Astrolabe made by Aḥmad ibn al-Sarrāj in 1328 –1329 AD. In addition, there are Spherical Astrolabe (15^th Century) signed Work of Mūsā, year 885, An Exquisitely Detailed

Astrolabe Mater (17^th  Century) signed Decorated by the rich (in     God), the servant, the son of Muḥammad Amīn, Muḥammad Mahdi al-Yazdī, and An Astrolabe with a Date Converter-Detail(18^th Century) maked by Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad al-Battūti.

Observational Category

The Muslims regularly started to observe the celestial objecs after they had done the initial expansion. In eighth Century AD,

Abū Ja’far Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khawarizmi who was a cheaf of al-Ma’mun Observatory successfully repaired the astronomical data where is from the Sindhind translation by arranging the table of logarithms.

Nasiruddin Muḥammad al-Ṭūsi was a Muslim astronomer who not only observed the celestial objects regularly in the observatorium in Maragha because of Hulagu’s command but also made Jadāwil al-Kāniyān, which is some astronomical data tables of the celestial objects.

Ibn Jabr al-Battani could determine the slope of Sun’s motion, the length of the sidereal and tropical year, the seasons, and the function of Sine in his research at the al-Raqqah Observatory, Baghdad.⁸⁰ He also popularized the trigonometric terms including Tangent and Cotangent⁸¹ through a Gnomon.

Category for the Religious Purposes

In order to meet the administrative and communication needs, Muslims created the Islamic calendar because of their more extensive territories. Therefore, the caliphate who ruled in 7^th

Century created a new calendar based on Moon’s cycles by new system, which is different from the Gregorian Calender and Julian Calender. This new calendar is started on the first day of Prophet Mumammad PBUH’s Hijrah from Mecca to Medina.

3.      The History of the Study of Islamic Astronomy (‘Ilm al-Falak) In Indonesia

As part of Islamic worship, the existence of Islamic Astronomy in Indonesia can not be separated from the advent of Islam to Indonesia. The early development history of Islamic Astronomy in Indonesia is since the enactment of the Islamic Javanese Calender System (Sistem Kalender Jawa Islam). It is the comibnation result of Soko and Hijri Calendar. In 1043 AH/1633 AD/1555 Soko, Sultan Agung created the new calendar (Islamic Java Calendar) whose both year continues the Calendar Soko and calculation base bases on the  Hijri Calendar’s calculation base.

According to Dr. H. Ahmad Izzuddin’s opinion that „Ilm al-Falak entered to Indonesia through two ways, namely through the experts of Islamic law and Europeans (Dutchmen). As a guide of the Islamic worship, „Ilm al-Falak entered to Indonesia through the experts of Islamic law whereas, as an astronomical science, it entered to Indonesia through Europeans (Dutchmen). In the next development, it develops through the combination of them.

a.    The Development of the Study of Islamic Astronomy (‘Ilm al-Falak) as a Guide for Islamic Worship

As a guide for Islamic worship, „Ilm al-Falak entered to Indonesia through the experts of Islamic law. It can be seen from the Islamic Astronomy’s study method taught under the Islamic law framework, such as in Islamic boarding schools, Islamic schools (madrasah), and colleges of Islamic religion (PTAI) having Shariah faculty. Generally, It divided into two classifications, which are Islamic Astronomy („Ilm al-Falak) influenced by Ulugh Beik’s astronomical data and Islamic Astronomy („Ilm al-Falak) influenced by the books of Islamic Astronomy, namely Maṭla’ al- Sa’īd fī Ḥisāb al-Kawākib „alā Rashd al-Jadīd and al-Manāhij al- Ḥamīdiyyah.

1)      The Development of the Study of Islamic Astronomy (‘Ilm al-Falak) Influenced by Ulugh Beik’s Astronomical Data

After Muslim scholars went home to Indonesia from studying (Ṭalab al-„Ilmī) in the Middle East, this development began to appear. They began to study in the Middle East since 17^th Century. They are Nūruddīn al-Rāniri (death. 1068 H/1658 M), „Abdurra’uf al-Sinkili (1024-1105 H/1615-1693 M) and Muḥammad Yūsuf al-Maqashari (1037-1111 H/1627-1701). Then in 18^th Century, some Muslim scholars also followed them. They are „Abdulṣamad (1704-1788), Muḥammad Arshad al-Banjarī (1122-1227 H/1710-1812 M), „Abdurraḥman al-Miṣrī al-Batawi, Muḥammad Nāfis ibn Idrīs ibn Ḥusain al-Banjarī (born in 1148 H/1735 M) and Dawūd ibn „Abdullāh ibn Idrīs al-Fatani⁹³ (1153-1182 H/ 1740-1768 M).

In the Middle East, they studied Ilm al-Tafsīr,Ilm al-Fiqh, Ilm al-Tauḥīd,’Ilm al-Tasawwūf, and „Ilm al-Falak. After they went home to Indonesia, they applied their knowledge. Forexample, After Muḥammad Arshad al-Banjarī went home to Indonesia in 1186 AD / 1773 H, he corrected the sacred direction (Qibla) of Jembatan Lima Mosque in Betawi, Jakartaon Mey 7, 1772 AD (Ṣafar 4, 1187 H)⁹⁴. The other example isthat after „Abduraḥman al-Batawi went home to Indonesia in 1186 AD / 1773 H, he also suggested to correct the sacred direction (Qibla) in Palembang in 1800 AD.

There are Muslim scholars studying in the Middle East transferred their knowledge to Indonesian people after they wenthome  to  Indonesia.  For  example,  Syekh  Abdurraḥman  ibn Aḥmad al-Miṣrī taught Ilm al-Falak to the young scholars by introducting the Ulugh Beik’s Astronomical data called UlughBeik’s Zaij. His students were Aḥmad Dahlan al-Samāranji andSayyid „Uthmān.  In addition, „Abdulḥamīd ibn MuḥammadDamirī was also his student. Next, Aḥmad Dahlan al-Samāranji, Sayyid „Uthmān and Abdulḥamīd ibn Muḥammad Damirī transferred their knowledge to their students and they made the Islamic Astronomy books. Aḥmad Dahlan not only taught his studentswhich one of them was KH. Aḥmad Dahlan (the founder of Muḥammadiyyah  Social  Organization)   but  also  made  the Islamic Astronomy book entitled Tadzkirah al-Ikhwān fī ba’ẓTawārikh  wa  al-A’māl  al-Falakiyyah  bi  Samāranji.¹⁰⁰  ḤabibUthman taught „Ilm al-Falak in Jakarta and he made the bookentitled Īqādz al-Niḍām fīmā Yata’allaq bi al-Ahillah wa al-Ṣiyām.¹⁰¹  This book is not the Islamic Astronomy book but itrelated to Islamic Astronomy.

Abdulḥamīd ibn Muḥammad Damirī also taught „Ilm al-Falak to the young scholars in Betawi. One of his studentswas Muḥammad Manṣūr ibn „Abdulḥamīd Damirī al-Batawī. Although „Abdulḥamīd did not make Islamic Astronomy book, his          student  made  it.  Muḥammad  Manṣūr  made  Islamic

Astronomy book  entitled  Sullam  al-Nayyirain  fī  Ma’rifat  al-Ijtima’ wa al-Kusufain. This book uses the Ulugh Beik’s astronomical data, which has been summarised by his father who is „Abdulḥamīd ibn Muḥammad Damirī.

Because of the large influence of this book, Muḥammad Manṣūr  is  considered  as  the  Indonesian  pioneer¹⁰⁵  using  the Ulugh Beik’s astronomical data. Ulugh Beik’s astronomical data was also used by other experts of Islamic Astronomy in their masterworks, such as Aḥmad Dahlan al-Samāranji uses it in Tadzkirah   al-Ikhwān,   Abū   Ḥamdān   „Abduljalīl   ibn Abdulḥamīd   al-Quds   uses   it   Fatḥ  al-Rauf   al-Mannān,Abdulfatḥ al-Sayyid al- Ṭūfī uses it in al-Qawā’id al-Falakiyyah, Anwār Kathīr al-Malanjī uses it in al-Syamsu wa al-Qamar. In addition, Qushairi al-Pasuruanī uses it in Jadwal al-Falakiyyah, Nawāwī Muḥammad Yūnusi al-Kadirī uses it inRisālah  al-Qamarain,  and  Ramli  Ḥasan  al-Grisikī  uses  it  in Risālah  al-Falakiyyah.  These  Islamic  Astronomy  books  are classified into Ḥisāb Ḥakīkī Taqrībī

Syekh  Ṭāhir  Jamaluddin  al-Azhari  is  also  a  famous expert of Islamic Astronomy in this period.¹⁰⁸ He made many Islamic Astronomy books. They are Pati Kiraan PadaMenentukan Waktu Yang Lima, Natījah al-Ummi (the al-Manac: Muslim and Christian Calender and Direction of QiblaAccording to Shafie Sect), Jadāwil al-Nukhbah al-Taqrīrāt fī Ḥisāb al-Auqāt wa Simt al-Qiblah and Mathematical Tables.¹⁰⁹

2)      The Development of the Study of Islamic Astronomy (‘Ilm al-Falak) Influenced by the Books Entitled Maṭla’ al-Sa’īd fī Ḥisāb  al-Kawākib  ‘Alā  Rashd  al-Jadīd  and al-Manāhij  al- Ḥamīdiyyah.

In this period, many Ilmu Falak books are influenced by Maṭla’ al-Sa’īd fī Ḥisāb al-Kawākib „Alā Rashd al-Jadīd written by Ḥusain Zaid al-Miṣrā and al-Manāhij al-Ḥamīdiyyah written by Abdulḥamīd Murshī Gaish al-Falakī al-Syhafi’ī. Both of these books were brought to Indonesia by people who both did Ḥaji (one of the Muslims obligations where is done in Mecca) and studied in Mecca. M. Taufik argued that most Islamic Astronomy books written in this period imitated these books.¹¹¹

In this period, Zubaer „Umar al-Jailani is considered as the Indonesian pioneer using the astronomical data based on heliocentric principle in his book entitled al-Khalāṣah al-Wafiyyah. This book is the result of his study in Mecca for five years (1930-1935 AD). In addition, Muḥammad Wardan Diponingrat also uses the astronomical data based on heliocentric principle in his book entitled Hisab Urfi dan Hakiki.

Both Muḥammad Wardan and Zubair „Umar al-Jailanī use theastronomical  data  where  is  in  al-  Maṭla’  al-Sa’īd.  If  al-Khalāṣah al-Wafiyyah uses Arabic Language and astronomical data of Mecca, Hisab Urfi dan Hakiki uses both Indonesian language and astronomical data of Yogyakarta. Thedevelopment embryo of Ḥisāb Ḥakīky Taḥkīki comes from both of them.

In  the  next  development,  many  Islamic  Astronomy books imitate from both al-Khalāṣah al-Wafiyyah and Hisab Urfi dan Hakiki. Some books, which imitate from al-Khalāṣah al-Wafiyyah are Nūr al-Anwār, which uses the astronomical data of Jepara written by Abū Saif al-Mujāb Nūr Aḥmad, al-Maksūf written by Aḥmad ṣāliḥ Maḥmūd Jauharī and Kalender Menara Kudus written by Turaiḥān al-Juhrī al- Sharofī.¹¹⁷  While Hisab Urfi dan Hakiki is imitated by experts of Islamic Astronomy of Muhammadiyah group, such as Saadoeddin Djambek.¹¹⁸

a.    The Development of the Study of Islamic Astronomy (‘Ilm al-Falak) as an Astronomical Science

As an astronomical science, Islamic Astronomy („Ilm al-Falak) entered to Indonesia through Europeans (Dutchmen). Bosscha Observatory, which was built in 1932 AD, is the proof of this.¹¹⁹ Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman were experts of Astronomy from Dutch and the first sailor who could get in Indonesia in the last of 16^th Century.

In 1765 AD, Johan Maurits Mohr who was a Dutch missionary could build his private observatory in Batavia. On June 3, 1769 AD, he could observe the transit of Venus¹²⁰ with the amazing result.¹²¹ Unfortunately, this observatory has been broken in 1780 AD and it has gone to pot in 1812 AD.

This Islamic Astronomy type rapidly developed because of the existence of Bosscha Observatory in Lembang, West Java. In order to develop Astronomy in Nederlandsch-Indische, Nederlands-Indische    Sterrenkundige    Vereeniging    (NISV) decided to build an observatory in Indonesia in its first meeting.¹²³

Because of the benignity of  Karel Albert Rudolf Bosscha who was a tea planter in Malabar to be first benefactor, Bossca Observatory has built successfully. The name of this observatory took his last name (Bosscha) because it is as an appreciation for him.

After Indonesia got independence, Bandung Institute of Technology (ITB) opened the formal astronomical education officially. Then, government of Indonesia entrusted Bosscha Observatory fully to Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences of Bandung Institute of Technology.

State institution, which is actively involved to develop Astronomy in Indonesia, is National Institute of Aeronautics and Space (LAPAN) Indonesia. LAPAN was established on November 27, 1963 by Presidential Decree 236. In the process, it engaged in aerospace technology and utilization of atmospheric science, climate, and space.

In order to develop astronomy in Indonesia, the government of Indonesia established not only formal institutions but also informal institutions of Astronomy. In 1968, the government of

Indonesia inaugurated the Planetarium of Jakarta. Since then, it becomes a beacon in the introduction of Astronomy to the public in the capital of Indonesia.

That government policy was welcomed by the lovers of Astronomy. The proof is that they established the Indonesian Astronomical Society (HAI) in 1977 AD. Then in 1984, they also established Jakarta Amateur Astronomers Association (HAAJ).

In addition, many Indonesian astronomers are involved in the astronomical activites in the world, such as Prof. Dr. Bambang Hidayat, Prof. Ahmad Baiquni, MSc, PhD, Dr. Djoni N Dawanas, Dr. Moedji Raharto and Dr. Thomas Djamaluddin.¹²⁶ Therefore, Ilm al-Falak as the astronomical science not only has grown rapidly in Indonesia but also has gained recognition at the international level.

c.    The Development of the Study of Islamic Astronomy (‘Ilm al-Falak) as the Comibnation Between ‘Ilm al-Falak as A Guide for Islamic Worship with ‘Ilm al-Falak as An Astronomical Science

The developmnent of Ilm al-Falak in this period tries to combine between Ilm al-Falak as a guide to Islamic worships and Ilm al-Falak as an astronomical science.

Saadoeddin Djambek is regarded as an astronomer pioneer in this period. Even, he is regarded as a reformer in „Ilm al-Falak. Susiknan Azhari explains in his thesis that Saadoe’ddin is both a modernist and a reformer in „Ilm Ḥisāb. He tried to combine between the traditional „Ilm al-Falak and the modern „Ilm al-Falak, so his astronomical data was always up to date.

Saadoe’ddin tried to develop a new calculation system of Ilm al-Falak as a guide for Islamic worship by introducing the Spherical Trigonometry Theory. It was happen because he had both the knowledge of „Ilm al-Falak as a guide for Islamic worship and the the knowledge of „Ilm al-Falak as an astronomical science. Based on this theory, he tried to construct some „Ilm al-Falak theories, such as the theory of determining the sacred direction (Qibla) using Sun’s shadow, the prayer times theory, and the theory of determining the beginning of Qamariyah months.

Saadoeddin  system   is   easier   and   more   modern. Moreover, its calculation prosedure can use a calculator. By calculator, students who do not have the basic science can both find out the geometry functions of an obtuse angle and calculate them to the most decimal places easily.¹³¹ Because this system is considered as the most suitable astronomical system with the development of modern science, the „Ilm al-Falak syllabuses of Shariah Faculties of State Institute for Islamic Studies all over Indonesia use this system.

The influence of the developed countries’s astronomical data, such as United States’s Nautical Almanac and Soviet Union’s phimeris, which have the higher accuraty than the astronomical data that have already existed in Indonesia, gave Saadoe’ddin initiative to use these astronomical data in Islamic Astronomy. The proof is that in his book entitled Hisab Awal Bulan Qamariyah,he explains how to calculate the beginning of the Qamariyah months based on Nautical Almanac and basic formula of spherical triangle.

Although at that time the calculation of astronomy has achieved the high accuracy, but the calculation steps was too long. In addition, the data of Nautical Almanac was only published every year and sometimes its publication was late. Therefore, in 1993, Drs. H. Taufiq and his son set up the astronomical data software and it was funded by Departmen of Religious Affairs (now it is Ministry of Religious Affairs). This software’s name is Hisab for Windows Version 1.0, which has the similar result to NauticalAlmanac. In 1998, it was enhanced by both the name WinHisab Versi 2.0 and licensing rights to Departmen of Religious Rukyat Hisab Agency.

In the last development, Islamic Astronomy has given the easy and convenience for its users. The proof is that many softwares circulate in cyberspace, such as Mawaaqit programmed by Indonesian Muslim Scholar Association (ICMI) in 1993,

Falakiyah Najmi programmed by Astronomy Major of Mathematics and Natural Sciences Faculty of Bandung Institute of Technology in 1996, Badī’ah al-Mithāl Program programmed by Muhyiddin Khazin in 2000. In addition, there are Ahillah, Misal, Pengetan and Tsaqib programmed by Drs. Muhyiddin Khazin, M.Si in 2004, Mawaaqit versi 2002 programmed by Dr. Ing Khafid in 2002, Al-Miqaat programmed by Dr. H. Ahmad Izzuddin, M.Ag and Aliq Burhani, ST.

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